Academic English > Vocabulary
Academcic English is written formally and in a gender neutral, non-judgmental, non-rehtorical style. There are now a number of “academic word lists” that have been compiled via the use of concordance tools. Coxhead’s Academic Word List (AWL) is particularly useful (Coxhead, 2000). However, in Teaching and Learning Vocabulary (1990), Nation argues that vocabulary acquisition should begin with the most frequent 2,000 words—i.e., those in the General Service List (GSL)—as everybody, irrespective of academic field, needs to know these words. In fact, concordance research shows that the GSL words make up about 87 per cent of an average written text.
Academcic Vocabulary
Glossary (phrases & terms)
The Academic Word List (AWL)
The General Service List (GSL)
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To really “know” a word you will need to:
- Use it in the correct context (how, where and when)
- Spell and pronounce it correctly
- Know its meaning/s and definition/s
- know its grammatical form (e.g. adjective, noun or verb)
- Know its synonyms and antonyms (related and opposite words)
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| WORD | ETC. |
| Obvious | ob·vi·ous | noun Where something is clear; easy to see. — The most obvious difference between these two cars is their size. |
| Overall | o·ver·all | adverb Describing the general trend. — Overall, the differences are greater than the similarities. |
| Nowadays | now·a·days | adverb At the present day; in these times; in this day in age. — Nowadays most students are bringing smartphones to school. |
| Introduction | in·tro·duc·tion | noun Verb (used with Object): in·tro·duce — My agree/disagree essay introduction has three parts. — Mr Smith introduced us to Mr Balotelli. |
con·clu·sion
استنتاج | noun
Verb (used with Object): con·clude
The final part of e.g. an essay; a book or a film.
— In conclusion, this essay focused on the issue of diabetes…
— The teacher concluded the lesson by showing us a film.
these · days
في الوقت الحاضر / في هذه الأيام |adverb
At the present day; nowadays; in this day in age.
— These days almost all students in Qatar have a smartphone.
en·tre·pre·neur | مقاول | noun
a person who organises and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk.
— The BBC has a range of services for entrepreneurs and small businesses.
Synonyms: businessman/businesswoman.
bond | سند مالي | noun
An agreement typically with legally binding force.
Synonyms: guarantee, promise, pledge.
dead·line | الموعد النهائي | noun
The latest time or date by which something should be completed.
— The deadline for the homework is Friday 13th February.
Synonyms: finishing date, cut-off point.
cred·it رصيد | noun
The ability of a customer (business or government) to obtain goods or services before payment. It is based on the trust that payment will be made in the future (usually with interest).
— Credit cards sometimes result in people buying more things than they can realistically afford.
mort·gage | رهن | noun
Similar to debt, but usually linked to money borrowed to by a property (e.g., an apartment or a villa).
— Mr Smith had to visit three banks in order to get a mortgage to by his first apartment.
re·ces·sion | (ركود اقتصادي) | noun
A period of temporary economic decline during which trade and industrial activity are reduced, generally identified by a fall in GDP in two successive quarters.
*** Shorter in time than an economic depression.
Synonyms: economic decline, downturn, slump.
bor·row | (اقتراض) | verb
To take and use (something that belongs to someone else) with the intention of returning it.
— Fatima always asked to borrow a pencil from the teacher.
lend
(إقراض) | verb
To grant (someone) the use of something on the understanding that it will be returned.
— The teacher always ended up lending Fatima a pencil.
de·pres·sion | (ركود اقتصادي) | noun
A period during which business, employment, and stock-market values decline severely or remain at a very low level of activity for a prolonged period of time.
— The economic depression of the 1930s led to a lot of social problems in the USA.
*** Longer than an economic recession.
debt | (دين) | noun
Something (usually money), that is owed by someone to someone else.
— Before leaving the UAE, Kareem had to pay back all his debts to the bank.
Synonyms: bill, dues, arrears, charges, financial obligation, outstanding payment, money owed.
aus·ter·i·ty | (تقشف) | noun
Difficult economic conditions created by government measures to reduce public expenditure..
— Due to the sharp fall in oil prices, the country was subjected to a period of austerity which meant big cuts in public spending.
pen·u·ry | (فقر) (بؤس) | noun
The state of being very poor and having to live in extreme poverty.
— As a result of the economic depression many families were forced to live in penury.
Synonyms: extreme poverty, hardship.
spec·u·late | (تأمل) (خمن) | verb
To engage in any business transaction involving considerable risk with potentially large gains, especially to buy and sell stocks and shared.
— It is often said that if you do not speculate you will not accumulate.
Synonyms: gamble, take a risk/chance.
hind·sight | الإدراك المتأخر | noun
Understanding of a situation or event only after it has happened or developed.
— With hindsight, Jameela should never have taken out that mortgage.
in·fla·tion | تضخم مالي | noun
Economics: a general increase in prices and fall in the purchasing value of money.
— The government are introducing policies aimed at controlling inflation.
a·nal·o·gy | تشابه جزئي | noun
A comparison between one thing and another, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification.
— The professor made an analogy between the workings of nature and those of human societies.
a·gen·da | جدول الأعمال | noun
Formally a plural of, agendum but usually used as a singular with plural, agendas or agenda. A list, plan, outline, or the like, of things to be done, matters to be acted or voted upon, etc.
— The chairman says we have a lengthy agenda this afternoon.
com·mu·ni·ca·tion | الاتصالات | noun
Something imparted, interchanged, or transmitted; communications: the means of sending messages, orders, etc.
ges·ture | إيماء | noun
verb: ges·ture
[noun] A movement of part of the body, especially a hand or the head, to express an idea or meaning.
[verb] To make a gesture.
— Alex made a gesture to say thank-you.
— Alia gestered meaningfully with her hands for everyone in the audience to be quiet.
Synonyms: signal, sign, motion, indication, gesticulation, show.
pos·ture وضعة | noun
verb: pos·ture
A position of a person’s body when standing or sitting.
— He stood in a flamboyant posture with his hands on his hips.
Synonyms: pose, strike an attitude, attitude, stance, standpoint, point of view, opinion, position, frame of mind.
pro·nun·ci·a·tion | النطق | noun
The way in which a word is pronounced; the act or result of producing the sounds of speech.
in·to·na·tion | ترتيل | noun
The rise and fall of the voice in speaking, especially the pitch pattern of a sentence, which distinguishes kinds of sentences or speakers of different language cultures.
— She spoke English with a strong Arabic intonation.
em·pha·sis | نبرة | noun
Stress given to a word or words when speaking to indicate particular importance.
— They placed great emphasis on the individual’s freedom.
Synonyms: stress, accent, force.
fun·da·men·tal | adjective/noun
[adjective] Forming a necessary base or core; of central importance.
[noun] A central or primary rule or principle on which something is based.
— The UN is designed to protect a number of fundamental human rights.
— Two courses cover the fundamentals of microbiology.
Synonyms: basic, rudimentary, elemental, elementary, underlying, root.
stra·te·gic | إستراتيجي | adjective
Relating to the identification of long-term or overall aims and interests and the means of achieving them.
— Strategic planning for the organization is the responsibility of top management.
Synonyms: planned, calculated, deliberate
fore·cast | توقعات | verb/noun
A calculation or estimate of future events, especially coming weather or a financial trend; to predict or estimate (a future event or trend).
— Rain is firecast for Oman.
Synonyms: prediction, prophecy, forewarning, prognostication, augury, divination, prognosis, projection, calculation.
an·a·lyse | تحليل | verb
Examine (something) methodically and in detail, typically in order to explain and interpret it.
— We need to analyse our results more clearly.
Synonyms: examine, inspect, survey, scan, study, scrutinize, look over, peruse.
e·val·u·ate | تقييم | verb
To form an idea about the quality of something or, the amount, number, or value of something.
Synonyms: assess, judge, estimate, appraise, analyse, examine.
op·por·tu·ni·ty | فرصة | noun
— Due to the cold weather in Europe we may see increased opportunities for exporting our warm jackets.
Synonyms: chance, window (of opportunity), possibility, new lease on life.
Economic term: “opportunity cost” تكلفة الفرصة
trade·off | noun
A balance achieved between two desirable but incompatible features; a compromise.
— Julie and John agreed a trade-off, John would be allowed a cat so long as Julie was allowed a dog (John didn’t like dogs, Julie didn’t like cats).
ex·ec·u·tive | تنفيذي | adjective/noun
noun: ex·ec·u·tive
[adjective] Relating to or having the power to put plans or actions into effect.
[noun] A person with senior managerial responsibility in a business.
— John was the Chief Executive Officer at the Smithsonian Institute.
— The board of directors gave Layla executive powers.
Synonyms: administrative, decision-making, directorial, managerial.
com·merce | تجارة | noun
The reduction in corporation tax was a benefit to commerce.
Synonyms: trade, trading, buying and selling, business, bargaining, dealing.
trade | تجارة noun/verb
[noun] The action of buying and selling goods and services; a job requiring manual skills and special training.
[verb] Buy and sell goods and services; To exchange (something) for something else, typically as a commercial transaction.
— Many countries would like to see the total ban in the ivory trade.
— Khaled trades oil, he’s been trading in for years.
Synonyms: exchange.
stock | الأوراق المالية | noun
The capital raised by a company or corporation through the issue and subscription of shares.
— Between 1999 and 2012 the value of the company’s stock rose by 72 per cent.
— The value of the company’s stock rose by 86 per cent.”
Synonyms: capital, funds, assets, property.
share | شارك | noun
One of the equal parts into which a company’s capital is divided, entitling the holder of the share to a proportion of the company’s profits (or losses).
— Jameela has decided to sell her shares in Google.
ad·van·tage | ميزة | noun
Antonym: dis·ad·van·tage
— The main advantage of iPads is that they save paper.
— The main disadvantage of iPads is that they are expensive.
ap·prox·i·mate·ly | ما يقرب من | adverb
Adjective: approximate | Similar to: a·round; a·bout (حوالي)
— There are approximately 800,000 Emiratis.
— The approximate number of Emiratis is 800,000.
cause | سبب | noun
Verb: cause | Antonyms: consequence / effect / result
— The car accident caused a traffic jam.
ef·fect | تأثير | noun
Adjective: effective | Antonyms: cause / reason
— The most negative effect of too much sun is skin cancer.
de·scribe | وصف | verb
Noun: de·scrip·tion | Adjective: de·scrip·tive
— In this report, I will describe each stage in detail.
dis·cuss | بحث | verb (used with object)
noun: dis·cus·sion
To consider/debate: different opinions on a subject.
— In this essay I will discuss the issue of junk food in schools.
— The discussion in class today was about global warming.
de·tail | فصل | noun
To focus on one thing and provide information about it.
— In this essay I will look in detail at the issue of…
for · in·stance | مثلا
Has the same meaning as “for example”.
— I like most fruit for instance, apricots, apples and raspberries.
di·a·gram | رسم بياني | noun
— The diagram shows the process of desalinating water.
ess·ay | مقالة |noun
— In this essay, I will argue that the main effects of obesity are…
re·port | بيان | noun
— In this report I will compare and contrast between…
com·pare | قارن | verb
Noun: com·par·i·son | Adjective: com·par·a·tive
Where two things are similar.
— In this report I will compare and contrast these two smartphones.
con·trast | تباين | noun
Adverb: con·trast·a·bly | Adjective: con·trast·a·ble
—Where two things are different.
— In this report I will compare and contrast these two smartphones.
dif·fer·ent | مختلف |adjective
Noun: dif·fer·ence
Where some people/things are not the same.
— Rabbits are very different from tortoises.
— There is a major difference between rabbits and tortoises.
dou·ble | مضاعف | noun
Where something is twice as big; two times larger.
— Al Ain mall has double the number of book stores compared to Bawadi mall.
ob·vi·ous | واضح | noun
Where something is clear; easy to see.
— The most obvious difference between these two cars is …
o·ver·all | شامل | adverb
Describing the general trend.
— Overall, the differences are greater than the similarities.
sim·i·lar | adjective | Noun: sim·i·lar·i·ty
Used for describing things where the difference is small.
— There is just one similarity, between these two cars.
— These two cars are similar in a number of ways.
where·as | حيث أن |conjunction
Used for contrasting two things (think: “but”).
— The USA is large in size whereas, Bahrain is small.
rea·son | سبب | noun
The first key reason, for my opinion is …
nec·es·sar·y | ضروري [adjective]
Something that is essential, indispensable, or required.
— Water is necessary for life as we know it.
re·sult | نتيجة [noun/verb]
— Smoking often results in cancer.
con·se·quence | نتيجة [noun]
Adverb: con·se·quent·ly
Another word for effect/result.
— The exam was easy, as a consequence, most students passed.
— It rained consequently, I went outside.
pos·i·tive | إيجابي | adjective
Used for describing an advantage (think: “good”).
— A positive, result of reading is gaining background ideas and knowledge.
neg·a·tive | سلبي | adjective
Used for describing a disadvantage (think: “bad”).
— A negative, consequence of watching too much TV might be eye ache.
harm·ful | مضر | adjective
Noun/Verb: harm
Used to describe a negative effect.
— Eating too much fast food can have many harmful consequences.
ben·e·fi·cial | مفيد | adjective
Noun: ben·e·fit
Used to describe a positive effect.
— Eating lots of carrots may benefit your health.
fac·tor | عامل | noun
Used to describe a point.
— One factor that contributes to obesity is eating too much junk food.
more·o·ver | علاوة على ذلك | adverb
In addition to what has been said; also; furthermore.
— There are many examples. Firstly, … Moreover, …
how·ev·er | لكن | adverb
Has the same meaning as “but”. Nevertheless; yet; on the other hand.
— Money is important however, happiness is more important.
fur·ther·more | علاوة على ذلك | adverb
In addition to what has been said; also; moreover.
— There are many examples. Firstly, … Furthermore, …
there·fore | ول / بسبب هذا / هكذا | adverb
Has the same meaning as “so” and “because of this…”
— I am tired therefore, I am going to bed.
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Glossary
| TERM | DEFINED |
| Analyse | To analyse a point of view, you would need to look at it in depth and reference supporting arguments and evidence for and against it as well as how these might be linked to each other. Such analysis typically forms part of advantage/disadvantage, cause/effect and problem/solution style essays. |
| Assess | Weigh up to what extent something is true. Persuade the reader of your argument by citing relevant research but also remember to point out any flaws and counter-arguments as well. Conclude by stating clearly how far you are in agreement with the original proposition. |
| Clarify | Literally make something clearer and, where appropriate, simplify it. This could involve, for example, explaining in simpler terms a complex process or theory, or the relationship between two variables. |
| Compare | Identify the similarities and differences between two or more phenomena. Say if any of the shared similarities or differences are more important than others. ‘Compare’ and ‘contrast’ will often feature together in an essay question. |
| Consider | Say what you think and have observed about something. Back up your comments using appropriate evidence from external sources, or your own experience. Include any views which are contrary to your own and how they relate to what you originally thought. |
| Contrast | Similar to compare but concentrate on the dissimilarities between two or more phenomena, or what sets them apart. Point out any differences which are particularly significant. |
| Critically evaluate | To give your opinion on the extent to which a statement is true. Typically you would provide evidence taken from a wide range of sources which both agree with and contradict an argument. |
| Define | To clearly set out the meaning of something. This may include highlighting any problems posed with the definition and the providing of alternative definitions (where they exist). |
| Demonstrate | Show how, with examples to illustrate. |
| Describe | To provide a detailed explanation as to how and why something happens or has happened. This is the key to a descriptive-style essay. |
| Discuss | This is a written debate where you are using your skill at reasoning, backed up by carefully selected evidence to make a case for and against an argument. This can be applied to advantage/disadvantage, cause/effect and problem/solution style essays. It is important to clearly provide your overall opinion (typically at the end in the conclusion paragraph). |
| Elaborate | To provide more information and details on something or someone. |
| Evaluate | In some ways evaluating two or more ideas/theories together is similar to juxtaposing them (see below). It involves placing two or more sets of ideas/opinions side by side in the same paragraph enabling the reader and you, the writer, to go on to compare their respective merits and drawbacks. |
| Examine | Look in close detail and establish the key facts and important issues surrounding a topic. This should be a critical evaluation and you should try and offer reasons as to why the facts and issues you have identified are the most important, as well as explain the different ways they could be construed. |
| Explain | Clarify a topic by giving a detailed account as to how and why it occurs, or what is meant by the use of this term in a particular context. Your writing should have clarity so that complex procedures or sequences of events can be understood, defining key terms where appropriate, and be substantiated with relevant research. |
| Explore | Adopt a questioning approach and consider a variety of different viewpoints. Where possible reconcile opposing views by presenting a final line of argument. |
| Identify | Determine what are the key points to be addressed and the importance and/or implications of thee points. |
| Interpret | Demonstrate your understanding of an issue or topic. This can be the use of particular terminology by an author, or what the findings from a piece of research suggest to you. In the latter instance, comment on any significant patterns and causal relationships. |
| Justify | Make a case by providing a body of evidence to support your ideas and points of view. In order to present a balanced argument, consider opinions which may run contrary to your own before stating your conclusion. |
| Juxtapose | Juxtaposition is placing two or more sets of ideas/opinions side by side in the same paragraph enabling the reader and you, the writer, to go on to compare and evaluate their respective merits and drawbacks. |
| Paraphrase | To express the meaning of something (i.e., the findings and/or opinions in a ‘source text’) by using different words. This is usually done to achieve greater clarity. It is also done to convert other writers’ styles to your own. |
| Outline | Set out the main points placing emphasis on global structures and interrelationships rather than small specific details. |
| Review | Look thoroughly into a subject. This should be a critical assessment and not merely descriptive. |
| State | To specify in clear terms the key aspects pertaining to a topic without being overly descriptive. Refer to evidence and examples where appropriate. |
| Summarise | Give a condensed version drawing out the main facts and omit superfluous information. Brief or general examples will normally suffice for this kind of answer. |
| Synthesise | A synthesis is a written discussion that draws on two or more sources. It requires you to be able to infer relationships among sources and follows on from evaluating/juxtaposing source materials (see above). |
| To what extent | This type of question requires a detailed assessment of the evidence in presenting your argument. Explore alternative explanations where they exist. |
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References
Nation, Paul. (1990). Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. Newbury House: New York.
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